The Cyclic Universe

THE CYCLIC UNIVERSE

Brent Anderson

Our universe is expanding as a result of the explosion commonly referred to as the big bang. From our perspective, it is difficult to visualize a universe that is not expanding since it has been doing so for approximately 13.7 billion years. From the standpoint of current hard data there is not quite enough mass to eventually stop the current acceleration of expansion and then precipitate a contraction. However, recent dark matter and dark energy discoveries along with the finding that neutrinos have mass leaves us with a muddled picture with respect to the end state of our universe. As time passes we find more and more dark matter, which might lead to an eventual contraction, but thrown into this mixture is the enigmatic repulsive dark energy. There are many theories that concern themselves with the structure and evolution of the universe which endeavor to explain how we got to our observed state from the first moments after the Big Bang, but few if any as to what caused it. The shock wave generated by that event currently defines the limits of our Universe, but that does not mean that the shape of the Universe is of necessity spherical. There are many other factors involved in the process of expansion including relativistic frame dragging, which arises from the initial angular momentum of the maximum Density State prior to the explosion. From this we might assume that the overall shape of the universe is bipolar and not unlike the shapes generated by the explosion of super dense stars. From these events we see jets of energy-matter, which follow the original spin axis of the star combined with hemispherical shock waves. It would be unwise to assume that the overall shape of the universe is predictably symmetrical beyond a generalized estimation.

Understanding the universe is a complex endeavor as witnessed by thousands of researchers who dedicate their lives to the pursuit of just that. Albert Einstein’s theories have allowed us to better understand its physical manifestations, and yet there are many questions arising from that understanding that remain unanswered. Each step forward in knowledge always brings more mysteries to be unraveled, while some of the most basic remain. The most glaring of these is the absence of antimatter in the Universe. To understand why this is puzzling one must first have an understanding of the relationship of energy and matter as defined in Einstein’s mass energy equation, i.e. energy is equal to mass times the speed of light squared. What this means in laymen’s terms is that mass is condensed energy. Experiments conducted at high energies have shown that energy is converted to mass, but observations of this process show that for every particle of matter produced there is always an equivalent particle of antimatter. In other words, for every atom of matter produced there must be a mirror image antimatter atom produced. This balancing of the books is one of the most fundamental of the observed physical verities. So when we observe the universe looking for the signature of antimatter we are perplexed to see nothing but the residual due to the random conversion of energy to antimatter (and matter) followed by a quick re-conversion to energy when antimatter encounters matter. It is very important to remember that the conversion of energy to matter and antimatter is a very unstable reaction if the resultant particle and anti-particle are not physically separated, and that separation is problematical because these particles are strongly attracted to each other via the strong nuclear forces. Such mirror image particles are annihilated upon physical contact with a resultant release of the original energy. However, in the absence of an antiparticle a particle (or the reverse) is infinitely stable and cannot be caused to release its stored energy excepting in the cases wherein a partial release occurs in fusion or fission of existing matter (antimatter) into the various atoms of the periodic table. In these cases energy is derived from the atomic components seeking the bottom of the periodic table of elements’ energy well, (which is Iron) and the amount of mass converted to energy in these reactions is comparatively very small in comparison to total stored energy in an atom.

Our position at a point very far removed from the big bang and a hypothetical eventual halting of expansion makes it difficult to understand the initial expansive cataclysm or the processes of contraction, and so we estimate using interpolation and mathematical models. The ultimate puzzle with regards to the big bang is why this state of infinite density, or if you will the ultimate Black Hole, should explode. Since we are not aware of natural laws or theories that allow for such instability in black holes.

Stephen Hawking has proposed a method for a slow “evaporation” of black holes via spontaneous energy to matter and antimatter reactions located at or near the (Black Hole) event horizon. The resultant antiparticle would then be attracted via the strong forces to the large concentration of matter within and the particle might then escape to space-time (or the reverse in the case of an antimatter black hole). This would in effect transform some of the mass within the event horizon into energy reducing infinitesimally the mass of the black hole while increasing infinitesimally the trapped energy. This slow loss of mass would however, in almost all-imaginable cases, be submerged by the accretion of relatively huge amounts of mass as has been observed in known black holes. It is important to note that not only does a black hole consume mass and energy, but also the space-time associated with that mass.

From such we gain some insight of the initial state of the universe itself in which all the energy, matter and space-time were contained within a singularity. Even within a black hole, mass retains its identity, as either matter or antimatter and thus we would expect black holes to come in one of two flavors. It is impossible for us to visualize or imagine what the matter (antimatter) in a black hole is like. Suffice it to say that matter, energy, and space-time are all enclosed within a boundary that prevents any observation from the outside. The mass that falls within such an unconformity is cumulative, causing an ever increasing gravitational warping of any remaining space-time. As we consider such it is not hard to imagine then the conditions that would prevail in the last stages of a contracting universe with almost infinitely massive black holes sucking in huge amounts of mass, energy, space-time including other black holes in a rapidly shrinking universe.

The enigmatic ultimate explosion defines the universe’s birth, but there is no reason to believe that the stuff of this universe has not always existed. To understand fully requires consideration of the missing antimatter and the nature of an antimatter Universe and how it might compare to ours.

Individuals living in an antimatter universe would, if they could compare it to ours, find nothing different on a large scale. On an atomic scale they would observe that their atoms had negatively charged nuclei and positively charged electrons compared to our atoms. The matter of our universe would be antimatter in their eyes. Their positively charged electrons would behave in the same ways, as our negatively charged electrons while the elements of their periodic table would mirror ours. In most ways their universe would appear to be similar to ours, including the missing antimatter mystery. They would have a universe with galaxies Stars, and black holes. It would be as obvious to them as it is to us that their matter and our matter would be attracted to the other via the strong atomic forces. The one thing that would not be obvious is that their gravity would be our antigravity (dark force). The reason for this lack of obviousness is that to date, none have been able to isolate enough antimatter to measure the weak force of antigravity as versus our gravity. Theory contends that antigravity exists, so this is not a quantum hypothetical leap by any means.

With this background established, we can now hypothesize the events that led to the big bang. If we visualize two black holes, one made of matter the other of antimatter. Each of these is in the last stages of absorbing the last matter or antimatter respectively, energy, and space-time of a once huge bipolar universe. The forces of gravity versus antigravity are pushing each away from the other, but as space-time it self is rapidly being gobbled by the two singularities they are forced to approach ever closer despite increasing repulsive forces. They have shaped space-time into a dumbbell shape with a very narrow connecting bridge of space-time. Because they are repulsed, they do not orbit one another, but they probably oscillate in pendulum fashion. (To visualize try to push matching poles of two strong magnets together and you will understand the reason for this oscillation.)

Considering the balance we see in nature and the fact that all known high-density objects are spinning rapidly, we might assume that each of these black holes is spinning at equal rates but in an opposite direction from the other. As these objects devour the last small bits of space-time they finally become close enough that the strong atomic forces overcome the repulsive forces of gravity and antigravity and at that point matter and antimatter would begin to combine within the partially conjoined singularities. The resultant energy would be trapped within the event horizons and would continue to increase while mass decreased. This progression would be accelerating due to decreasing gravity and antigravity fields (decreasing mass), but the main bodies of matter and antimatter would still be as far from each other as space-time would allow. At some point in this process of combining of two black holes, the mass still remaining unconverted would simultaneously pass a critical point when gravity and antigravity fields are so weakened that they can no longer hold against the increasing energy. This then was the beginning of The Big Bang explosion that was propelled by the vast amount of energy released in the final moments of the two singularities. The rush of expanding energy propelled the tiny amounts of degenerate matter and antimatter with associated space-time in an expansion that initially exceeded light speed.

The residual gravitational fields generated by the remaining matter and antimatter were repulsing each other causing a bipolar rebound in the direction from which the singularities approached each other. At the same time jets of energy and matter/antimatter would be projected along the axis of spin for each of the breached singularities. This happened concurrently with the generation of the two hemispherical shock waves that were reflecting off of each other. The hemispherical shock waves caused by the rebound of the antigravity versus gravity would be focused perpendicular to the axis of spins of the former singularities. The overall configuration is obviously more complex than this simplified visualization because of the many factors that are minimized or factors unknown. The bridging connection between the matter and antimatter lobes of the universe would rapidly contract due to gravitational versus anti-gravitational warping of space-time. Thus creating a small singularity-like connection stretching along most of the length of the vertical jets and the hemispherical shock waves. Along these “super strings” space-time constrictions energy would be concentrated as it flowed between the now two-lobbed space-time continuum. In the resultant high-energy concentrations (visualize two funnels joined at the small ends) conditions are conducive to the formation of matter/antimatter from energy. Further, under these unique conditions with antigravity attracting the resultant antimatter and gravity attracting the matter we have a situation not unlike that which Hawking visualized for the evaporation of black holes, except that both particles have an increased chance of escaping annihilation. This shift of the equilibrium to favor survival of matter and antimatter essentially provided, and is providing, the material for building clusters of galaxies all along the interfaces of both matter and antimatter lobes of the universe. From this we also now understand the source and nature of the repulsive dark energy (antigravity) that seemingly is increasing the expansion within our lobe of the space-time universe.

Considering the spectrum of possible equilibriums for the energy to mass reaction it is obvious that higher energy density favors more condensation of energy to mass. However, without a mechanism of separating matter from antimatter there would be a much smaller spectrum of possible equilibriums. By including a bipolar universe with gravity and antigravity then the resulting mass becomes very stable until the next contraction. By its very nature the period of time in which mass is converted to energy is short when compared to the period of time when energy is being converted to mass. The period of expansion and contraction of the universe is an unimaginably long time while the period in which the two primal black holes finally meet and then explode is measured in microseconds. Immediately after the explosive release of the joint singularities the equilibrium again favors the production of matter and antimatter as it does for all of the expansion and most of the contraction. In both cases the rate is proportional to energy densities.

In the early stages of expansion, high energy densities would allow for matter and antimatter in only their most basic components. Such high temperatures would prevent the condensation of atoms. As the expansion continued, lower ambient temperatures would eventually allow the condensation of atoms and the first stars made of matter or antimatter, depending on which lob of the universe was observed. From this perspective, it is clear, that not only is the universe cooling from expansion but also from the condensation of energy to mass. The matter and antimatter produced would account for the huge concentrations of matter we observe along the “super strings”. If we could observe the antimatter portion of our galaxies we would expect the same concentration of antimatter along the other side of the tenuous connection.

From this new perspective it becomes easier to understand what astronomers are observing of the universe. Further, it allows us to understand why the otherwise inexplicable big bang occurred. Obviously there are many unanswered questions but there will always be more to learn and understand about this universe and perhaps more importantly, the very existence of entities that contemplate these sorts of questions. As we consider the immensity of our universe our comparatively infinitesimal presence leaves our egos challenged. We ask is man a pawn played upon the board of chaos, or are we not the heir’s of the Creator of the universe and all therein.